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        "\n# Feature discretization\n\n\nA demonstration of feature discretization on synthetic classification datasets.\nFeature discretization decomposes each feature into a set of bins, here equally\ndistributed in width. The discrete values are then one-hot encoded, and given\nto a linear classifier. This preprocessing enables a non-linear behavior even\nthough the classifier is linear.\n\nOn this example, the first two rows represent linearly non-separable datasets\n(moons and concentric circles) while the third is approximately linearly\nseparable. On the two linearly non-separable datasets, feature discretization\nlargely increases the performance of linear classifiers. On the linearly\nseparable dataset, feature discretization decreases the performance of linear\nclassifiers. Two non-linear classifiers are also shown for comparison.\n\nThis example should be taken with a grain of salt, as the intuition conveyed\ndoes not necessarily carry over to real datasets. Particularly in\nhigh-dimensional spaces, data can more easily be separated linearly. Moreover,\nusing feature discretization and one-hot encoding increases the number of\nfeatures, which easily lead to overfitting when the number of samples is small.\n\nThe plots show training points in solid colors and testing points\nsemi-transparent. The lower right shows the classification accuracy on the test\nset.\n\n"
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        "# Code source: Tom Dupr\u00e9 la Tour\n# Adapted from plot_classifier_comparison by Ga\u00ebl Varoquaux and Andreas M\u00fcller\n#\n# License: BSD 3 clause\n\nimport numpy as np\nimport matplotlib.pyplot as plt\nfrom matplotlib.colors import ListedColormap\nfrom sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split\nfrom sklearn.preprocessing import StandardScaler\nfrom sklearn.datasets import make_moons, make_circles, make_classification\nfrom sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression\nfrom sklearn.model_selection import GridSearchCV\nfrom sklearn.pipeline import make_pipeline\nfrom sklearn.preprocessing import KBinsDiscretizer\nfrom sklearn.svm import SVC, LinearSVC\nfrom sklearn.ensemble import GradientBoostingClassifier\nfrom sklearn.utils._testing import ignore_warnings\nfrom sklearn.exceptions import ConvergenceWarning\n\nprint(__doc__)\n\nh = .02  # step size in the mesh\n\n\ndef get_name(estimator):\n    name = estimator.__class__.__name__\n    if name == 'Pipeline':\n        name = [get_name(est[1]) for est in estimator.steps]\n        name = ' + '.join(name)\n    return name\n\n\n# list of (estimator, param_grid), where param_grid is used in GridSearchCV\nclassifiers = [\n    (LogisticRegression(random_state=0), {\n        'C': np.logspace(-2, 7, 10)\n    }),\n    (LinearSVC(random_state=0), {\n        'C': np.logspace(-2, 7, 10)\n    }),\n    (make_pipeline(\n        KBinsDiscretizer(encode='onehot'),\n        LogisticRegression(random_state=0)), {\n            'kbinsdiscretizer__n_bins': np.arange(2, 10),\n            'logisticregression__C': np.logspace(-2, 7, 10),\n        }),\n    (make_pipeline(\n        KBinsDiscretizer(encode='onehot'), LinearSVC(random_state=0)), {\n            'kbinsdiscretizer__n_bins': np.arange(2, 10),\n            'linearsvc__C': np.logspace(-2, 7, 10),\n        }),\n    (GradientBoostingClassifier(n_estimators=50, random_state=0), {\n        'learning_rate': np.logspace(-4, 0, 10)\n    }),\n    (SVC(random_state=0), {\n        'C': np.logspace(-2, 7, 10)\n    }),\n]\n\nnames = [get_name(e) for e, g in classifiers]\n\nn_samples = 100\ndatasets = [\n    make_moons(n_samples=n_samples, noise=0.2, random_state=0),\n    make_circles(n_samples=n_samples, noise=0.2, factor=0.5, random_state=1),\n    make_classification(n_samples=n_samples, n_features=2, n_redundant=0,\n                        n_informative=2, random_state=2,\n                        n_clusters_per_class=1)\n]\n\nfig, axes = plt.subplots(nrows=len(datasets), ncols=len(classifiers) + 1,\n                         figsize=(21, 9))\n\ncm = plt.cm.PiYG\ncm_bright = ListedColormap(['#b30065', '#178000'])\n\n# iterate over datasets\nfor ds_cnt, (X, y) in enumerate(datasets):\n    print('\\ndataset %d\\n---------' % ds_cnt)\n\n    # preprocess dataset, split into training and test part\n    X = StandardScaler().fit_transform(X)\n    X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(\n        X, y, test_size=.5, random_state=42)\n\n    # create the grid for background colors\n    x_min, x_max = X[:, 0].min() - .5, X[:, 0].max() + .5\n    y_min, y_max = X[:, 1].min() - .5, X[:, 1].max() + .5\n    xx, yy = np.meshgrid(\n        np.arange(x_min, x_max, h), np.arange(y_min, y_max, h))\n\n    # plot the dataset first\n    ax = axes[ds_cnt, 0]\n    if ds_cnt == 0:\n        ax.set_title(\"Input data\")\n    # plot the training points\n    ax.scatter(X_train[:, 0], X_train[:, 1], c=y_train, cmap=cm_bright,\n               edgecolors='k')\n    # and testing points\n    ax.scatter(X_test[:, 0], X_test[:, 1], c=y_test, cmap=cm_bright, alpha=0.6,\n               edgecolors='k')\n    ax.set_xlim(xx.min(), xx.max())\n    ax.set_ylim(yy.min(), yy.max())\n    ax.set_xticks(())\n    ax.set_yticks(())\n\n    # iterate over classifiers\n    for est_idx, (name, (estimator, param_grid)) in \\\n            enumerate(zip(names, classifiers)):\n        ax = axes[ds_cnt, est_idx + 1]\n\n        clf = GridSearchCV(estimator=estimator, param_grid=param_grid)\n        with ignore_warnings(category=ConvergenceWarning):\n            clf.fit(X_train, y_train)\n        score = clf.score(X_test, y_test)\n        print('%s: %.2f' % (name, score))\n\n        # plot the decision boundary. For that, we will assign a color to each\n        # point in the mesh [x_min, x_max]*[y_min, y_max].\n        if hasattr(clf, \"decision_function\"):\n            Z = clf.decision_function(np.c_[xx.ravel(), yy.ravel()])\n        else:\n            Z = clf.predict_proba(np.c_[xx.ravel(), yy.ravel()])[:, 1]\n\n        # put the result into a color plot\n        Z = Z.reshape(xx.shape)\n        ax.contourf(xx, yy, Z, cmap=cm, alpha=.8)\n\n        # plot the training points\n        ax.scatter(X_train[:, 0], X_train[:, 1], c=y_train, cmap=cm_bright,\n                   edgecolors='k')\n        # and testing points\n        ax.scatter(X_test[:, 0], X_test[:, 1], c=y_test, cmap=cm_bright,\n                   edgecolors='k', alpha=0.6)\n        ax.set_xlim(xx.min(), xx.max())\n        ax.set_ylim(yy.min(), yy.max())\n        ax.set_xticks(())\n        ax.set_yticks(())\n\n        if ds_cnt == 0:\n            ax.set_title(name.replace(' + ', '\\n'))\n        ax.text(0.95, 0.06, ('%.2f' % score).lstrip('0'), size=15,\n                bbox=dict(boxstyle='round', alpha=0.8, facecolor='white'),\n                transform=ax.transAxes, horizontalalignment='right')\n\n\nplt.tight_layout()\n\n# Add suptitles above the figure\nplt.subplots_adjust(top=0.90)\nsuptitles = [\n    'Linear classifiers',\n    'Feature discretization and linear classifiers',\n    'Non-linear classifiers',\n]\nfor i, suptitle in zip([1, 3, 5], suptitles):\n    ax = axes[0, i]\n    ax.text(1.05, 1.25, suptitle, transform=ax.transAxes,\n            horizontalalignment='center', size='x-large')\nplt.show()"
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